Effects of chinas one child policy on women

Effects of chinas one child policy on women As the most populous country in the world, the Peoples Republic of China has been adopting the One-Child Policy since 1979 in order to improve the problem of overpopulation which is seen as an obstacle of the growth and development of the country. While the Chinese Government emphasizes its achievements of population control in China, the controversial policy has been widely criticized for its negative influences. This paper presents the One-Child Policys effects on the position of women. Womens position in this paper is basically defined by womens rights, freedom, respectability and social status .I will first briefly introduce the policy, then analyze both the positive and negative impacts with relevant data and statistics, and lastly come to a conclusion. The Policy and Population Growth Introduced in 1978 and implemented since 1979, the One-Child Policy is a family planning policy adopted by the Chinese Government in order to improve Chinas over-rapid population as to prevent its unfavourable effects on economic and social development of the country.(Information Office of the State Council Of the Peoples Republic of China 1995) The policy restricts married urban Chinese couples from having more than one child by imposing monetary penalties on families with extra children yet exemptions are allowed for couples who belong to ethnic minorities, live in rural area or do not have any siblings.(BBC News 2000) The One-Child Policy is considered successful in terms of its control on Chinas population growth as the birth rate in the county has been greatly decreasing since the introduction of the policy. (see Figure 1) Compared with 1970, in 1994 the birth rate dropped from 33.43 per thousand to 17.7 per thousand; the natural growth rate, from 25.83 per thousand to 11.21 per thousand; and the total fertility rate of women, from 5.81 to around 2à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦According to statistics supplied by the United Nations, Chinas population growth rate has already been markedly lower than the average level of other developing countries. (Information Office of the State Council Of the Peoples Republic of China 1995) Figure 1. Changes in the total fertility rate in China Source: National Population and Family Planning Commission of China (2006) Violation of Womens Reproductive Rights Despite its success in population control, the One-Child Policy gives rise to criticisms among which one lies in its violation of womens reproductive rights. Reproductive rights are a subset of human rights first recognized at the United Nations International Conference on Human Rights in Teheran on 13th May 1986. According to the 16th article of the Proclamation of Teheran, Parents have a basic human right to determine freely and responsibly the number and the spacing of their children. Dixon-Mueller (1993: 12) suggests that reproductive rights can be defined as three types: 1. the freedom to decide how many children to have and when (or whether) to have them; 2. the right to have the information and means to regulate ones fertility; 3. the right to control ones own body. Reproductive freedom is the core of individual self-determination. The One-Child Policy does not only violate womens rights by limiting the number of their children but also leads to forced abortions in the country. Under the enforced policy, every 2.4 seconds there is a woman undergoing a forced abortion in China and this makes a total of about 35,000 abortions per day. (Phillips 2010: 1) Abortion is legal in China and as reported in China Daily in 2009, 13 millions of abortions are performed in China every year, which largely exceeds those performed in other countries such as the United States and Canada. (see Figure 2). There is a direct relationship between the One-Child Policy and Chines abortion rate. PostenYaukey (1992: 290) point out that the abortion rate in China increased by nearly 50% between 1978 and 1979 when the policy started being implemented. It is widely known that abortions can cause women health problems, not to mention its negative impacts on emotional and mental health. Ms. Reggie Littlejohn, president of Womens Rights Without Frontiers, criticized that The one child policy causes more violence toward women and girls than any other policy on the face of the earth. (Jiang 2009) Figure2. Abortion statistics in China, U.S.A., U.K., Canada and Australia Source: Jiang (2009) Unwanted Daughters and Sex-Selective Abortions A saying among peasants in China goes like this:The birth of a boy is welcomed with shouts of joy and firecrackers, but when a girl is born, the neighbours say nothing(WestleyChoe 2007: 2) In spite of Chinas modernization over the past decades, it is still common for Chinese parents to prefer sons to daughters. (Wang 1999: 197) Such a preference indirectly leads to sex-selective abortions as female fetuses are usually considered less precious than male ones, especially if the couples are allowed to have only one child. With fetal screening technologies such as ultrasound, amniocentesis and chorionic villi sampling, the sex of unborn fetuses can be recognized before their birth. Such technologies and available abortions result in the possibility that couples selectively abort female fetuses in the hope of having a son instead.(WestleyChoe 2007: 3) Beside sex-selective abortions, Chinas infant mortality rate is another thing to look into. Generally the mortality of male infants is expected to be greater than that of female ones as male infants are biologically weaker than female infants.(Li, 2007: 2) This assumption is also proved by the worlds infant mortality rate by sex.(See Table 1) However, as shown in Table 2, China goes in the reverse direction. It is believed that this unusual tendency is caused by female infanticides and daughter abandonments resulting from the son preference. Table 1. Worlds infant mortality rate by sex 1980-2010 Source: United Nations Population Division (2010) Table 2. Chinas infant mortality rate by sex 1980-2010 Source: United Nations Population Division (2010) Gender Imbalance Blessing or Curse? Together with the increasing female infant mortality, there is a rising trend of the sex ratio in China since the implement of the One-Child Policy.(See Figure 3) It is estimated by the State Population and Family Planning Commission that there will be 30 million more Chinese man than Chinese women in 2020. (BBC News 2007) Because of the supply-and-demand law that supply decreases t and demand remains unchanged then the value of supply increase, some people assume that if there are less women in China their values and social status should naturally rise. However, this law would make sense only if the demand of women was high. Poon(2008) points out that when women become the minority in a male-preponderant society like China, China may face a period of unprecedented male aggression, which would likely render women as victims and womens status even more precarious and vulnerable to subjugation. Figure 3. Rising sex ratio and excess female infant mortality in China Source: Sun (2005) Womens Empowerment The Mistaken Focus It is always emphasized by the Chinese Government that the One-Child Policy helps promoting womens empowerment and improving womens position as they are freed from heavy burdens brought about by having many children(National Population and Family Planning Commission of China 2006). This claim contains two causal relations: 1) Because of the One-Child Policy women have fewer children. 2) Women have fewer children so they can spend more time on their career. Both of them make sense in a large extent, but is the One-Child Policy a must to control the number of womens children? Probably no. Despite that Hong Kong is a special administrative region of the PRC, the One-Child Policy is never implemented in the city, where the social position of women is relatively high. As shown in Figure 4, the fertility rate of Hong Kong kept dropping even and was even lower than that of China. Of course one can argue that there are various factors contributing to Hong Kongs low fertility rate, yet one can also question whether the One-Child Policy is the only factor causing the decline in fertility rate and the rise of womens position. Figure 4. Fertility rates from 1960-2005 in China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and East Asia Pacific Source: The United Families International (2010) The Single Child Generation The One-Child Policy does not only aim to decrease the birthrate but also to improve the quality of the new generation, the future pillars of China. It is commonly believed that having single daughters will raise the position of women as their parents provide them with better and more concentrated resources such as education and materials. It may be true in some ways, but Greenhalgh(2007.) points out that the One-Child Policy has produced the most materially and educationally privileged generation of young people in Chinese history who are spoiled and egocentric. Having been the focus of attention from the family throughout their growing-up years, these children are more dependent on others and easily hurt psychologically.(China Daily 2005) The new single-child generation in China has already concerning Chinese from the older generation. Do better resources necessarily create a better generation? If it does not, how can we expect a decline in qualities of children (both male and fema le) will result in better positions of women? Conclusion The One-Child Policy was claimed to be a short-term measure when it was first introduced in China.(Hesketh, Li Zhu 2005) Now that the policy has already been implemented for three decades, its negative consequences eventually appear and have aroused worries from the society. The policy negatively affects womens position as it violate womens rights and enhances the existing favoritism towards male children and it is not coming to an end yet. According to Zhao Baige, deputy director of the National Population and Family Planning Commission of China, although it is said that the policy has been slowly being relaxed ,Chinas family-planning policy will remain unchanged until at least 2015. (Kumar 2010) (1631 words)

Does the Bangladeshi Worker Community Experience Ill Health more than their White British Counterparts?

1.Abstract For a person to enjoy a good quality of life, remaining strong and healthy is essential. However the ability to retain good health is often affected by a range of diverse factors including ethnicity, living standards, age, occupation and access to medical facilities. The purpose of this research is to investigate whether of people of working age within the Bangladeshi Community are more prone to illness that their counterparts within the White British population. 2.Aims of the Study Research Question: Does the Bangladeshi worker community experience ill health more than their White British counterparts? In order to explore the question of whether Bangladeshi people of working age are more prone to illness when compared to their White British counterparts, I have chosen to address and collect information on the following: The attitudes that Bangladeshi and White British workers have towards ill health The knowledge and awareness that Bangladeshi workers have towards accessing NHS services The ways in which Bangladeshi workers can become more aware of the means of reducing ill health How Bangladeshi workers can be encouraged to make lifestyle changes in order to nurture their health Literature Review The Literature review I conducted has revealed evidence which suggest that Bangladeshi workers are more prone to illness than their White British counterparts. For instance- research conducted by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation in 2007, revealed a significant difference between levels of long- term illness within the White British and Bangladeshi working age communities (Salway et al, 2007). According to the research, 16% of the White British sample suffered from long term illness, compared to 64% of the Bangladeshi sample. There was also a marked difference in the age of onset, with the White British workers within the sample experiencing illness between the ages of 50 and 59, whereas the Bangladeshi sample experienced onset between 34 and 39. The relationship between health and ethnicity has been an area of much debate and exploration amongst academics over the years, and has often been linked to the concept of, â€Å"social exclusion†, an aspect of which relates to the difficulties that some ethnic minorities have in accessing adequate housing, employment, opportunities and public services. ( Purdy and Banks, 2001). Concerns regarding the inequalities that ethnic minorities encounter when accessing welfare service systems created vital legislation in the early 1980s in the form of the â€Å"Black Report†, and addresses inequalities that continue to exist today, â€Å"The Black Report placed emphasis on material explanations for class inequalities in health, which given the class locations of ethnic minority people might also be relevant to ethnic inequalities in health.† ( Nazroo in Bury and Gabe, 2002:145). More recently, research conducted as part of the Fourth National Survey of Ethnic Minorities in 1993 suggested that some Asian groups such as Bangladeshis and Pakistanis are more at risk of experiencing acute heart disease than other ethnicities, an assertion that has been controversial amongst academics, â€Å" While this approach was useful in uncovering the extent to which convenient assumptions of similarity within obviously heterogeneous groups were false, it could be suggested that these findings mean we can use the term, â€Å" Pakistani and Bangladeshi† heart disease, rather than, â€Å" South Asian† heart disease to describe the situation† ( Nazroo in Bury and Gabe, 2004: 147). These insights and others very much informed my opinion as I embarked on this research project. 4.Sample Social Classification, Age, Sample Size, Location and Research Timings: In order to explore a wide range of attitudes towards health, I recruited respondents using a random sampling approach, in order to ensure that a range of attitudes and perspectives were explored. As a result, the sample comprised a wide range of occupation and educational backgrounds and abilities, reflecting all of the categories of present social and market research social classification ( Robson, 2002 ) This form of classification consists of the following: GRADESOCAL CLASSOCCUPATION AUpper Middle ClassSenior Management or Professional BMiddle ClassAssociate Management or Professional C1Lower Middle ClassClerical, admin and support staff C2Skilled Working ClassSkilled manual workers with a formal training or qualifications DUn skilled Working ClassUn skilled manual workers without formal qualifications or training EPeople who exist on low incomes and benefitsCan be anything from casual workers to pensioners In order to construct a sample which reflected the categories in the above table, I recruited respondents at locations regularly frequented by people of all backgrounds, including the Croydon Whitgift Shopping Centre, Croydon High Street and the Croydon Bangladeshi Welfare Association. I recruited 40 respondents in total- which included working people within the Bangladeshi and White British populations, between the ages of 25 and 60. Both male and female respondents are included and research commenced at the beginning of March and concluded at the beginning of May. 5.Research ConsiderationsEthics and Data ProtectionBefore conducting the research, I gained the approval and permission of both the London Borough of Croydon and the University’s Ethical Review Committee. Prior to questioning the respondents, I explained to them the purpose of the research, how their opinions would inform the findings, and how the findings would be used. I also assured them that their views would remain completely confidential, and that they had the opportunity to opt out of the project at any time they wished to. The questions were also carefully constructed in a manner that would not cause distress or offence, and I made a concerted effort to make them feel comfortable and valued (Bryman, 2012).Limitations and Researcher BiasAs with all research projects, this investigation had certain imperfections and limitations in its design and execution. Above all, the study would most likely have been very different if it had been conducted within a, â€Å"real world research† context without the researcher having to juggle the research work with other priorities such as course work. Also, as the data was collected in one area, it may be regionally biased. However, it should be pointed out that the majority of people within communities experience many similar conditions and socialising factors, which can make, â€Å"snap- shot† studies representative of the larger population valid, and on the whole and much social, commercial and market research is carried out in this manner. Another factor than can affect the reliability of data is the possibility of respondents expressing what they feel researchers want them to hear- therefore modifying or embellishing responses. Whilst this remains an issue in all research projects, it should be pointed out that the rapid answering that quantitative closed questionnaires tends to produce, will most likely make respondents answer bluntly and accurately- without the after-thoughts that inform m uch qualitative work (Robson, 2002). 6.MethodologyData Collection MethodsThe project used a variety of methodologies including an initial pilot study, primary and secondary methods. Secondary and desk research, including the Literature Review was undertaken in order to create a detailed knowledge of the subject which was to be explored in the research, as well as key hypotheses to be addressed. Additionally, a pilot study was conducted prior to undertaking the fieldwork in order to test the relevance and clarity of the questions and subjects posed to respondents, as a means of making the fieldwork as effective and seamless as possible. During the primary, fieldwork stage of research, I chose to use a mostly quantitative questionnaire with close ended questions, in order to specifically focus on the topics that needed to be explored to satisfy the research objectives. This created a situation in which respondent’s answers were consistently relevant. However in order to ensure that the respondents had the opportunity to express additional issues relating to the topics, I also included several open ended questions- inspired by a more qualitative approach. Data Analysis Methods Once the fieldwork had been completed I chose to use the Statistical Package for Social Sciences or SPSS as a means of analysing the data I had collected. This approach provides several benefits, including the ability to record and log data quickly and to organize it across a range of analytical formats including statistical and multivariative approaches. For presentation purposes, the results were ordered into graphs, charts and tables ( Blaxter, et al, 2011) which aimed to reduce misunderstandings and comprehension issues. 7.Dissemination of Findings and Results The research findings were presented using a short reform format and have been made available to the University for future reference. During the life of the project, I also kept the sponsor up-to-date with the findings as they developed, both in the shape of preliminary insights and the conclusive more detailed final report. I have also passed the findings onto the respondents via email, and have thanked them enormously for their crucial participation in the project.Key Findings:Crucially, the research revealed that minority ethnic respondents experienced aspects of social exclusion, both in terms of accessing mainstream health services and society in general. This is mainly attributed to the lack of English language skills that some of the sample had, as well as cultural issues which result in the secrecy and concealment of health issues, problems and ailments. Within the Bangladeshi sample there was also a tendency for health issues to be internalised within the social and family n etworks of the community itself- which also resulted in a resistance to seeking mainstream NHS support and services. Conclusions The Bangldeshi worker community have a tendency to experience the onset of serious illnesses earlier than their White British counterparts, through a range of behavioural and cultural factors that prevent them from accessing NHS service in a systematic manner that would improve their health. Considerations for Future Research The aim of the research was to provide information and insights relating to why Bangladeshis are prone to ill health, and how public awareness can be raised in order to address their problems. However, during the fieldwork and analysis stage, I was very surprised to the extent that people within the Bangladeshi community conceal their ill health and delay accessing help as a result of strong societal and cultural pressures. Therefore, I have emphasised the need for additional research in the final report, in order to obtain more information on this subject, as a means of devising solutions that can help eradicate such problems. Based on the research that has been conducted so far, I am confident that my data collection and data analysis approaches offer effective means of generating crucial findings- but would also recommend using different methodologies for future research such as qualitative focus groups and face to face interviews. This approach will enable the researcher to get a greater understanding of key issues, and can involve the use of enabling and projective techniques that can enable respondents to express themselves in a clearer manner. ( Robson, 2002). Focus groups and face to face interviews can also provide vital insights on behaviour and practice which is not always possible when using a quantitative approach. (Bryman, 2012). This is often expressed through the recall of certain situations and experiences- which can also serve to create a greater understanding of the contexts of certain situation- for instance, the specific ways in which Bangladeshi people interact with NHS services. 9.Details of Funding The research was budgeted at ?500 and was funded by Research Councils UK ( RCUK). The organisation regularly commissions research within a range of academic disciplines including medical, biological, social, economic and environmental sciences, in order to investigate ways of increasing wellbeing within society. The research I conducted was funded with the intention of finding ways to address the impact of poor health within the Bangladeshi working age community. Bibliography Back, L. Solomos, ( 1995) Race, Politics and Social Change. London: Routledge. Blaxter, L. Hughes, C. Tight, M. (2011) How to Research, 4th ed. Cambridge: Open University Press. Bury, M. (1997) Health and Illness in a Changing Society. London: Routledge. Bury, B. Gabe, J. ( 2004) The Sociology of Health and Illness. London: Routledge. Bryman, A. ( 2012) Social Research Methods. London: Palgrave. Israel, M. and May, I. (2006) Research Ethics for Social Scientists. London: Sage. Purdy, M. Banks D ( 2001) The Sociology of Politics and Health. London: Routledge. Robson, R. ( 2002) Real World Research. London: Blackwell. Salway, S. Platt, L. Chowbey, P. Harriss, K. Bayliss, E. (2007) Long- Term Ill Health, Poverty and Ethnicity. London: Policy Press Zikmund, G. William (2003) Business Research Methods. London: South Western. http://www.jrf.org.uk/publications/long-term-ill-health-poverty-and-ethnicity (Accessed 11th March 2013)

Market For Lemons Summary Essay

In this article, the author examines the relationship between quality and uncertainty and their implication on the theory of markets. Akerlof uses the example of the automobile market in order to illustrate the effects of uncertainty and quality on consumer behavior. In his example, Akerlof begins with the assumption that consumers have the option of either buying a new or used car. However, the consumer cannot predict whether the car that they buy is a good car or a â€Å"lemon†. Therefore, the probability of a car being good can have a probability of q while the probability of a lemon would be (1-q). This probability increases, however, as time progresses and you learn about your car. Therefore, it can be seen that the seller will have a more accurate prediction on the quality of the car as opposed to the buyer because the seller has more information on the car. The problem is that the seller is forced to sell his car at a price which disregards quality because buyers are unable to tell the difference between a good car and a lemon. Therefore, the seller is not able to receive the true value of his car and therefore forced to operate under a loss. Akerlof continues this analogy in other examples. In the insurance industry, the elderly have problems obtaining insurance due to the drastic spike in premium cost. Research has shown that as the price level rises, the people who insure themselves will be those who are increasingly certain that they will need insurance. This means that as the average medical condition of the insurered deteriorates, the price level rises, with the result that no insurance sales may take place at any price. Akerlof also uses the example of employing minorities, the cost of dishonesty, and the credit markets in underdeveloped countries to make his point. He has shown how â€Å"trust† is extremely important in any business transaction. Informal guarantees are preconditions for trade and business.

Essay about Cell Phone Use While Driving should be Banned...

Cell Phone Use While Driving should be Banned in all States Imagine you are driving down the road and you begin to notice the car in front of you is swerving. You start to wonder if the driver may be under the influence; you keep a close watch on the car, but keep your distance for safety precautions. All of a sudden the driver slams on their brakes to avoid hitting a pedestrian and you end up rear-ending them. Later you discover that the driver was texting on their phone and almost hit the pedestrian because their attention was elsewhere. How would that make you feel? Now, you have to pay to repair the damages on not only your car, but the other driver’s car as well. I believe that cell phone use while driving should be banned in all†¦show more content†¦Once a driver gets on their phone, they also may decrease in speed because they are not focusing on the speedometer, which could lead to other drivers becoming agitated. Then the other drivers may exhibit road rage w hich could become dangerous to others on the road. A driver’s focus should always remain on the road. If one is on their phone they cannot see or hear what is happening around them. A driver being on the phone while driving is one of the biggest distractions drivers today face. Lastly, cell phone use while driving should be banned because it can become dangerous for oneself as well as others on the road. Not only does cell phone use for drivers endanger other people, it endangers the life of the operator itself. Drivers can run off the road into trees, ditches, or poles; they may also run into other cars or drift into oncoming traffic. Using a cell phone while driving also puts other drivers on the road in danger; if a driver is texting, their eyes are on their phone and they may not see the car in front of them stopping, which will lead into a wreck that could injury someone. 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